In online dating, blacks more open to romancing whites than vice versa

New research from the University of California, Berkeley, suggests that when it comes to dating, cyberspace is as segregated as the real world. Data gathered from more than 1 million profiles of singles looking for love online show that whites overwhelmingly prefer to date members of their own race, while blacks, especially men, are far more likely to cross the race barrier in hopes of being struck by Cupid’s arrow.

UC Berkeley researchers analyzed the racial preferences and online activity of people from the United States who subscribed between 2009 and 2010 to a major Internet dating service. In their profiles, the online daters stated a racial preference. Some said they preferred to date only within their race, others preferred someone outside their race, and yet others said they were open to dating someone of any race.
Researchers were then able to compare the online daters’ stated preferences with whom they actually contacted for a date, and they found profound differences between blacks and whites.
“Those who said they were indifferent to the race of a partner were most likely to be young, male and black,” said Gerald Mendelsohn, a UC Berkeley psychologist, professor of graduate studies and lead author of the study, which will soon be submitted for publication.
Overall, he said, “Whites more than blacks, women more than men and old more than young participants stated a preference for a partner of the same race,”
The reluctance of whites to contact blacks was true even for those who claimed they were indifferent to race.  More than 80 percent of the whites contacted whites and fewer than 5 percent of them contacted blacks, a disparity that held for young as well as for older participants.
“Were they hypocritical? Alert to the realities of the social world? Striving for political correctness? Attempting an optimizing strategy of self-presentation? Our data do not permit us to choose among those alternatives,” the study authors wrote.
The study’s coauthors are Lindsay Shaw Taylor, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Berkeley; Andrew T. Fiore, a graduate of the UC Berkeley School of Information who is currently a visiting assistant professor at Michigan State University and Coye Cheshire, an assistant professor in the School of Information.
An estimated one in five Americans has used an online dating service such as eHarmony or  Match.com, and a growing number of urbanites are finding romance via Facebook and other social networking sites. The percentage of couples who have met online is now nearly equal to that of pairs who met through friends or family, according to the researchers.
“As the use of online dating services grows, people whose paths never would have crossed offline now regularly meet and have meaningful exchanges in the virtual world,” the UC Berkeley study says.
The last 40 years have seen a dramatic shift in attitudes in America toward black-white intermarriage – from three to one opposed to three to one in favor, said Mendelsohn. Yet, 2000 U.S. Census data shows that black-white couples represent just 1 percent of American marriages, he said.
The main findings of this study parallel the census data on marriage in that blacks are more likely than whites to be in interracial marriages, and that couples in which the husband is black and the wife is white are more common than those in which the husband is white and the wife is black, according to Mendelsohn.
“One theory is that blacks are acting like other minority populations in the history of this country,” Mendelsohn said. “They are interested in moving up in the power structure, and one way you do that is through intermarriage with the dominant group.”
According to the study, more than 80 percent of the online dating contacts initiated by whites were to other whites, with only 3 percent going to blacks. This trend held for both men and women, young and old. Although black participants initiated contact to members of their own race more than to whites, they were ten times more likely to contact whites than vice versa, according the the study.
The researchers also tracked the rates of reciprocation among the pool of online daters, looking at how they responded once they received a message from an interested potential partner. Again, white men and women were most likely to respond to members of their own race, and only 5 percent of their responses went to blacks.
A major objective of the study was to gauge how changing attitudes about interracial marriage and an increase in dating opportunities have played out in relationships between blacks and whites. Also of interest to researchers was the question of whether the Obama presidency signals that the United States has entered a post-racial era.
“It is clear that we are not yet in the post-racial era, and evidence from studies of online dating suggest that waiting for its arrival will take some patience,” the study concludes.

By Yasmin Anwar, Media Relations | February 11, 2011

United States Geological Survey : Ouch! Taking a Shot at Plague: Vaccine Offers Hope for Endangered Ferrets in Plague Outbreak

Endangered black-footed ferrets, like children, aren't exactly lining up to be stuck with a vaccine, but in an effort to help control an extensive outbreak of plague in South Dakota, some of the ferrets are getting dosed with a vaccine given by biologists.

This is the first time the vaccine has been used during a major plague epizootic—an animal version of a human epidemic. Sylvatic plague is an infectious bacterial disease usually transmitted from animal to animal by fleas. This exotic disease is usually deadly for black-footed ferrets and their primary prey, prairie dogs. Black-footed ferrets are one of the rarest mammals in North America.

In mid-May, the Centers for Disease Control confirmed sylvatic plague in black-tailed prairie dog colonies in the Conata Basin area of Buffalo Gap National Grasslands in southwestern South Dakota. As of late June, about 9,000 acres of prairie dog habitat — including colonies occupied by vulnerable black-footed ferrets — have been infected by the disease, according to U.S. Forest Service mapping. Black-tailed prairie dogs are also being reconsidered for listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Ferret population surveys in the fall of 2007, before the outbreak, indicated at least 290 ferrets lived in the Conata Basin ferret reintroduction area. Some of the plague-impacted prairie-dog colonies were occupied by ferrets, but researchers do not know yet how many ferrets have died from the outbreak. Scientists report that in the past, such outbreaks have wiped out entire colonies of prairie dogs and the black-footed ferrets that depended on them for food.

To help increase ferret survival during this outbreak, biologists are vaccinating wild ferrets to provide immunity if they become exposed to plague. The plague vaccine was developed for humans by the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Disease and is being tested and modified for animals at the USGS National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) in Madison, Wisc.

Ferret getting vaccinated at the USGS National Wildlife Health Center (courtesy USGS)

Spraying insecticide in prairie-dog colony (courtesy USFWS)

Black-footed ferret poking its head out of a prairie-dog burrow (courtesy USFWS)

"Although the plague vaccine is still experimental in wildlife, we hope its use during this epizootic will protect as many ferrets as we can capture in the field and boost ferret survival during this critical period," said USGS NWHC Research Chief Dr. Christopher Brand.

Prairie Wildlife biologists working with the federal agencies have captured and vaccinated 40 black-footed ferrets since the outbreak began, said Scott Larson with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who is coordinating measures to conserve ferrets among the federal agencies.

Dr. Tonie Rocke, the lead researcher at the USGS NWHC testing the vaccine for animals, said the vaccine is administered to prairie dogs and black-footed ferrets through an initial shot and a booster about a month later. She noted that the NWHC is working on a separate oral vaccine for prairie dogs that can be put into bait and delivered in the field without having to handle the animals, a process that is time-consuming.

Another strategy to control plague outbreaks is to apply insecticide that will reduce the flea populations in the prairie dog colonies that are important to black-footed ferrets, but that have not yet experienced plague die-offs.

Dr. Dean Biggins, a research ecologist and black-footed ferret expert at the USGS Fort Collins Science Center in Colorado, is collaborating with the NWHC to investigate the combined efficacy of dusting burrows with insecticide and vaccinating animals in the field. "We've had experience with burrow dusting in other areas, and we know dusting protects both species from plague during these outbreaks," Biggens said.

Field tests, said Biggins, showed that the combination of burrow dusting and experimental vaccine protected black-footed ferrets in Montana during a time of low-level plague mortality in the area.

"What we're trying to do in South Dakota is assess the protectiveness of the vaccine for prairie dogs and ferrets during a full-blown eruption of plague that is causing high mortality in the prairie dog population," Biggins said. About 75 prairie dogs were experimentally vaccinated in 2007 in South Dakota, and vaccination is continuing in 2008.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, National Park Service, and the U.S. Forest Service are working together to lessen the impacts of this outbreak, as are private organizations such as Prairie Wildlife Research and conservation groups, including World Wildlife Fund, Defenders of Wildlife, and the Prairie Dog Coalition.

The same bacterium that affects ferrets, prairie dogs, and other rodents, is also responsible for human cases of plague. The disease is transmitted from animals to humans by bites of infected fleas, but it can be cured with antibiotics if treatment is prompt. About 5 to 15 people are infected by plague each year, and it is not unusual to have some human fatalities as a result. Last November, a National Park Service biologist contracted plague from a cougar and died.

---

USGS provides science for a changing world. For more information, visit www.usgs.gov.

Academy of General Dentistry : Psychological and social issues associated with tooth loss

Expert shares ways to cope with the impact of losing teeth

Are feelings of depression overwhelming you? Is your self-esteem an issue? Having problems advancing in life or your career? Maybe you feel nervous or self conscious in social settings? Do you avoid social settings all together? Check your smile; tooth loss could be the culprit and you're not alone. Nearly 20 million teeth are extracted each year leaving scores of people to deal with the psychological affects of a less than perfect smile. However, during the Academy of General Dentistry's (AGD) 56th Annual Meeting & Exhibits in Orlando, Fla., July 16-20, H. Asuman Kiyak, PhD, will address the psychological issues affecting people who must deal with the loss of a tooth, as well as explain how this loss can affect the quality of life.
In Dr. Kiyak's course, "Enhancing the Oral Health and Quality of Life for Partially Edentulous or Fully Edentulous Patients: The Importance of Communication," she will reveal the post traumatic effects a patient endures after the loss of a tooth and will also pinpoint ways a doctor can communicate with a patient to help them cope with and understand their options for restoring their smile.
"The major impact of tooth loss is on the appearance and social relations component of quality of life because people cannot change their appearance with missing teeth," says Dr. Kiyak.
In fact, recent results from a survey distributed to nearly 20,000 AGD members revealed that more than 86 percent of general dentists reported social embarrassment is one of the greatest problems associated with tooth loss and more than half of these patients avoid social interaction because of it.
Yet, Dr. Kiyak noted that there are ways that patients can learn how to cope with the loss of a tooth. Dr. Kiyak encourages patients to:
Weigh their options with the pros and cons for replacement teeth or even endodontic treatment to save a "hopeless" tooth.
Review videos or still photos of others who have lost teeth and their current teeth status with removable or implant-supported dentures.
Read testimonials of others who have undergone single, multiple, total tooth loss and replacement of these teeth with removable or implant-supported dentures, how they have coped with each stage and how they are functioning orally, systemically and psychologically with these dentures.
"A smile serves as an individual's most powerful tool," says AGD spokesperson Laura Murcko, DMD. "A great smile can make a great lasting impression, boost a person's self-esteem and confidence as well as improve their overall health."
###
Dr. Kiyak will be one of more than 100 speakers that will present the latest developments in oral health and technology during the AGD's Annual Meeting & Exhibits. Dr. Kiyak's course will be held on Thursday, July 17 from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. EDT.
About the AGD
The AGD is a professional association of more than 35,000 general dentists dedicated to staying up-to-date in the profession through continuing education. Founded in 1952, the AGD has grown to become the world's second largest dental association, which is the only association that exclusively represents the needs and interests of general dentists.
More than 786,000 persons are employed directly in the field of dentistry. A general dentist is the primary care provider for patients of all ages and is responsible for the diagnosis, treatment, management, and overall coordination of the general dentist through financial support of scientific, educational services related to a patient's oral health.
For more information about the AGD, please visit www.agd.org.
Dentists will be available for interviews about this topic, and/or other oral health topics, prior to and during the Annual Meeting which takes place July 16-July 20, 2008. Please contact Joshauna Walker at 312.440.4974 or media@agd.org.

Society for Research in Child Development : Parents should limit young children's exposure to background TV

Despite the fact that pediatricians recommend no screen media exposure for children under age 2, three-quarters of very young children in America live in homes where the television is on most of the time, according to research. A new study has found that leaving your TV set on disrupts young children while they are playing, even if the channel is tuned to adult shows. This means that simply having the TV on, even in the background, may be detrimental to children's development.

The study, conducted by researchers at the University of Massachusetts, is published in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development.

The researchers looked at 50 children ages 1, 2, and 3. Each child came to a lab with a parent and was invited to play for an hour with a variety of age-appropriate toys. For half the time, a television was on in the room, showing an episode of the adult game show Jeopardy!, with commercials; during the other half hour, the TV was turned off.

Researchers observed the children as they played to determine whether background TV—defined as adult-oriented television that is on and may be watched by older members of the family, but which very young children don't understand and to which they pay little attention—affected the children's behavior during play.

Background TV was found to disrupt the toy play of the children at every age, even when they paid little attention to it. When the television was on, the children played for significantly shorter periods of time and the time they spent focused on their play was shorter, compared to when the TV was off.

"Background TV, as an ever-changing audiovisual distractor, disrupts children's efforts to sustain attention to ongoing play behaviors," according to Marie Evans Schmidt, who is now a research associate at the Center on Media and Child Health at Children's Hospital Boston and is the lead author of the study. "Background TV is potentially a chronic environmental risk factor affecting most American children. Parents should limit their young children's exposure to background television."

###

The study was funded by the National Science Foundation.

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, The Effects of Background Television on the Toy Play Behavior of Very Young Children by Schmidt, ME (Children's Hospital Boston), Pempek, TA (Georgetown University), and Kirkorian, HL, Lund, AF, and Anderson, DR (University of Massachusetts). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved.

Society for Research in Child Development : Full-day kindergarteners' reading, math gains fade by 3rd grade

Due in part to poverty, home environment

Children in full-day kindergarten have slightly better reading and math skills than children in part-day kindergarten, but these initial academic benefits diminish soon after the children leave kindergarten. This loss is due, in part, to issues related to poverty and the quality of children's home environments.

Those are the findings from a new study by researchers at the University of Pittsburgh and Loyola University Chicago. Published in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development, the study sheds light on policy discussions as full-day kindergarten programs become increasingly common in the United States.

Using data on 13,776 children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, a study of a nationally representative group of kindergartners, the researchers measured children's academic achievement in math and reading in the fall and spring of their kindergarten and first-grade years, and in the spring of their third- and fifth-grade years. The researchers also looked at the type and extent of child care the children received outside of kindergarten, the quality of cognitive stimulation the children received at home, and the poverty level of the children's families.

Overall, the study found that the reading and math skills of children in full-day kindergarten grew faster from the fall to the spring of their kindergarten year, compared to the academic skills of children in part-day kindergarten.

However, the study also found that the full-day kindergarteners' gains in reading and math did not last far beyond the kindergarten year. In fact, from the spring of their kindergarten year through fifth grade, the academic skills of children in part-day kindergarten grew faster than those of children in full-day kindergarten, with the advantage of full-day versus part-day programs fading by the spring of third grade. The fade-out can be explained, in part, by the fact that the children in part-day kindergarten were less poor and had more stimulating home environments than those in full-day programs, according to the study.

"The results of this study suggest that the shift from part-day to full-day kindergarten programs occurring across the U.S. may have positive implications for students' learning trajectories in the short run," notes Elizabeth Votruba-Drzal, assistant professor of psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and the study's lead author. "They also highlight that characteristics of children and their families play noteworthy roles in why the full-day advantages fade relatively quickly."

###

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, A Developmental Perspective on Full-Day vs. Part-Day Kindergarten and Children's Academic Trajectories through Fifth Grade by Votruba-Drzal, E (University of Pittsburgh), Li-Grining, C (Loyola University Chicago), and Maldonado-Carreño, C (University of Pittsburgh). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved

Society for Research in Child Development : Growing up amid war affects children's moral development

Colombian children living in war zones exhibited an understanding that stealing or hurting others is wrong. But when asked to consider revenge as a motive, many said it is acceptable to steal or hurt others for revenge. These vulnerabilities were more pronounced among teenagers.

Those are the findings of a new study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah. One of the first studies to consider how growing up in a war zone affects children's moral development, the research appears in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development.

Children in about 50 countries worldwide are growing up in the midst of armed conflict and its aftermath. In Colombia, where almost 2 million children have been forcibly displaced from their homes over the past 15 years, the researchers sought to determine how living amid violence, lawlessness, and deprivation affects the way children think about right and wrong.

The researchers looked at 96 war-affected children and adolescents in Colombia to determine whether they developed moral concepts related to justice and welfare, and if so, how they brought those moral concepts to bear on situations related to survival and revenge—situations that are relevant to life in the midst of political conflict and that might represent compelling reasons to breach moral principles.

According to the study, all participants said it is wrong to steal or hurt others because of considerations of justice and welfare, and most said it is wrong to steal or hurt others even when such actions can help ensure one's survival. When the question of revenge arose, however, the youths' judgments were mixed, with a sizeable number endorsing stealing and hurting for that reason. A majority of the participants also said they expected that people would steal and hurt others in most situations; this view was strongest among teens.

"Overall, these findings unveil a reservoir of moral knowledge among war-affected children: Even the impoverished environments of war and displacement present youths with opportunities for reflecting on the intrinsic features of actions that harm others," according to Roberto Posada, a doctoral student at the University of Utah, and Cecilia Wainryb, professor of psychology at the University of Utah, the study's authors. "But these findings also point to potential vulnerabilities in these children's moral lives. It is possible that contexts underscoring concerns with survival might compromise children's ability to view themselves and others as moral agents, while contexts underscoring revenge might give rise to cycles of violence."

###

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, Moral Development in a Violent Society: Colombian Children's Judgments in the Context of Survival and Revenge by Posada, R, and Wainryb, C (University of Utah). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved.

Society for Research in Child Development : Immigrant youths explore identity in high school

Children from immigrant families are assumed to give up their families' ethnic and cultural background in order to assimilate with American culture. But a new study shows that in fact, they find ways to combine their cultural heritage with their identification as members of American society, especially during the high school years. The types of labels they create and use could foreshadow the types of labels used by the larger society in the years to come.

The study, conducted by researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, Wake Forest University, and Williamette University, appears in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development.

"Given that immigrant families comprise the large majority of those with Asian and Latin American backgrounds and that these are the two fastest rising ethnic groups in the United States, the outcome of these explorations will have implications for the nature of ethnic categories and ethnic identity in the broader society," according to Andrew J. Fuligni, professor of psychiatry and psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles, and the study's lead author.

The researchers studied about 380 adolescents from Asian and Latin American immigrant families in Los Angeles over the course of four years of high school. The youths chose from a long list of ethnic labels that included terms referring to national origin (such as Mexican), pan-ethnic terms (such as Asian), and terms including the word "American" (such as American or Asian American). They study also assessed adolescents' degree of attachment to their ethnic background, the amount of exploration they'd done of their cultural heritage, and their proficiency in their families' native language.

Most teenagers who grow up in immigrant families choose a hyphenated label (such as Mexican-American) to describe themselves, according to the study. Moreover, significant numbers of these adolescents change their labels from year to year, suggesting that high school is a time for youths from immigrant families to explore their identities.

The study also found that first-generation teens (i.e., those who were born outside the United States) were more likely to choose a national origin label (such as Chinese) to describe themselves than were second-generation teens (i.e., those who were born in America to foreign-born parents). Furthermore, teens reported higher levels of ethnic attachment, exploration, and native language proficiency during the years in which they selected a national origin label to describe themselves than in other years.

###

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, Stability and Change in Ethnic Labeling Among Adolescents From Asian and Latin American Immigrant Families by Fuligni, AJ (University of California, Los Angeles), Kiang, L (Wake Forest University), Witkow, MR (Williamette University), and Baldelomar, O (University of California, Los Angeles). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved.

Society for Research in Child Development : Aggressive preschoolers found to have fewer friends than others

Preschoolers who are aggressive, angry, and inattentive tend to have fewer playmates than their non-aggressive classmates, whether they are boys or girls. In comparison, non-aggressive children do better at interactions with many peers over time.

Those are the findings of new research that used an important innovation for studying children's peer relationships. Conducted by researchers at Arizona State University and published in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development, the study suggests that as early as preschool, aggressive children have less consistent relationships with their peers.

Preschool is a time when there are a lot of changes in the ways children interact with their peers. Although aggressive behavior is common at this age, as children practice social skills and learn how to control their behavior, some children show more intense aggression or do so more often. These children may harm other children, be quick to anger, and have trouble focusing on activities. Because these children are at risk for later social and developmental problems, researchers feel it is important to understand their early relationships with peers.

The Arizona State University researchers observed 97 students in six preschool classrooms in an urban southwest area of the United States; the students' teachers also reported on the children's behavior. Using a new quantitative procedure called the Q-connectivity method, they repeatedly assessed the children's peer interactions to determine how many peers the children interacted with and how often those interactions took place. Using that information, they looked at the relationship between children's ability to establish and maintain relationships with peers and their tendency to display physical aggression, anger, and attention problems.

Aggressive, angry, and inattentive children tended to play with fewer peers repeatedly over time than their non-aggressive classmates, who were more successful at interacting frequently with many classmates over time. This pattern also was true of younger children, which is not surprising given the typical social development of younger children, who tend to move from solitary play to increased involvement with classmates. The findings were the same for boys as well as girls.

###

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, The Breadth of Peer Relationships among Preschoolers: An Application of the Q-Connectivity Method to Externalizing Behavior by Hanish, LD, Martin, CL, Fabes, RA, and Barcelo, H (Arizona State University). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved.

Society for Research in Child Development : Family resources, parenting quality influence children's early cognitive development

Even among low-income families, mothers with greater social and economic resources were more supportive in parenting their children than those with fewer resources, which in turn influenced the children's cognitive performance. That's the main finding of a new study that considers how economic factors and parenting quality jointly influence children's development. Conducted by researchers at the Center for Research on Culture, Development, and Education (CRCDE) in New York University, the study appears in the July/August 2008 issue of the journal Child Development.

The researchers examined 2,089 low-income mothers and their children, who took part in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Study, visiting homes when the children were 14, 24, and 36 months old. During the visits, researchers measured the quality of parenting (by observing interactions between mothers and their children, and by observing the home environment) and families' economic resources (specifically, per capita income) to determine how these factors influence children's cognitive development. They also looked at the influence of factors such as mothers' education, children's birth weight, how often mothers read on their own, and where children's fathers lived, and sought to learn whether children influence the way their parents interact with them.

Families' economic resources and the quality of parenting each played a unique role in contributing to children's cognitive development, the study found. Mothers who had greater economic resources were more supportive in parenting of their children, which in turn influenced children's cognitive performance.

Children's cognitive performance also influenced parenting, with mothers being more supportive (displaying more warmth and sensitivity, and encouraging more cognitive stimulation) in response to their children's developmental achievements.

"These findings point to the importance of examining parenting resources and parenting quality as joint contributors to children's development," according to Julieta Lugo-Gil, who conducted the research when she was at the CRCDE in New York University. Lugo-Gil, now at Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., was the study's lead author. "Programs that aim solely at supplementing family earnings may not have a strong impact on children's cognitive development; programs that offer a combination of cash assistance and services designed to improve the quality of parenting may be more effective."

Lugo-Gil also called for programs that enhance parents' resources beyond income alone. "Strengthening the quality of parenting should also include services aimed at improving family literacy and education, reducing parental stress, and providing high-quality child care."

###

The CRCDE in New York University is funded by the National Science Foundation.

Summarized from Child Development, Vol. 79, Issue 4, Family Resources and Parenting Quality: Links to Children's Cognitive Development across the First Three Years by Lugo-Gil, J, and Tamis-LeMonda, CS (New York University). Copyright 2008 The Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. All rights reserved.

Royal Society of Chemistry : British guiltiest in survey of Western European shower habits

Water-wasting and uncaring about gels, shampoos and soap going down the plughole: that's how the British emerge from a survey on showering habits of western Europeans.

Women in Britain are particularly guilty of wasting shower water and not caring about contaminants, says the report for the Royal Society of Chemistry.

But men in Britain have little to be proud of because they don't care about what they wash down the drain. The most glaring contrast in the survey shows that only 35% of British men give thought to contaminants compared nearly two-thirds of Spanish women who do care about them.

The French and Spanish emerge most commendably from the survey, demonstrating greater restraint in water conservation and concern about washing contaminants into the water system.

Adults in Western Europe are most likely to shower for between two and five minutes, indicates the report, conducted by Ipsos MORI.

The opinion research company carried out the survey as part of the Royal Society of Chemistry's current campaigning on water supply and quality internationally.

Respondents in Great Britain, France, Germany and Spain were asked how long they typically ran the water for when taking a shower.

Overall adults in France and Spain showed the highest level of concern for contaminants that are washed away during showering, with a higher proportion very or fairly concerned than in Britain or Germany.

They were asked how concerned they were about contaminants from gels, soaps and shampoos that are washed into the water system.

The recent RSC report Sustainable Water highlighted the need for research into the effects of flushing contaminants down the drain into the sewage system. Richard Pike, chief executive of the Royal Society of Chemistry, said today:

"It's an embarrassment that the British appear to be a right shower when it comes to caring about water. We are an island surrounded by water and criss-crossed by rivers but also highly and densely populated.

"We must not wait until the 59th minute before we tackle impending environmental disasters. Are we so short-sighted that we act only when the consequences are already upon us?

"We have to take on board the critical message that water is a precious resource and in the years to come it is going to become increasingly scarce. We can save water massively by using less when washing, without compromising hygiene.

"One should be able to shower thoroughly in a couple of minutes; we hear stories of people staying in the shower for half an hour at a time, which is absurd and self-indulgent. They say that it helps them relax.

"Well, if we had a population of five million and not 60 million such self-indulgence might be tolerable.

"But today, with the world facing water shortages, that simply doesn't wash."

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem :

Six-thousand year old bones excavated in Jericho may help a joint Israeli-Palestinian-German research group combat tuberculosis.

According to Prof. Mark Spigelman of the Kuvin Center for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who is leading the Israeli team, the bones, which were all excavated by Dr. Kathleen Kenyon between fifty and seventy years ago, will be tested for tuberculosis, leprosy, leishmania and malaria. However, the primary focus will be tuberculosis.

Spigelman is known for his pioneering studies of ancient diseases (palaeoepidemiology) found on mummified bodies and human remains from Hungary and Korea to Sudan, in his quest to provide answers to the development of diseases affecting us today, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis and malaria.

'TB still the biggest killer'

Tuberculosis - or TB - is a deadly infectious bacterial disease that usually attacks the lungs. Acknowledged as a disease of crowds, it is transmitted from human to human living in close contact.

Dating back thousands of years, tuberculosis was well known in antiquity. However, according to Spigelman, it is still the biggest killer even today. One-third of the world's current population has been infected by tuberculosis, resulting, in recent years, in approximately three million deaths per year.

Why Jericho?

While the origins of tuberculosis and its evolution remain unclear, it is thought it came from the first villages and small towns in the Fertile Crescent region about 9-10,000 years ago. Jericho is one of the earliest towns on earth, dating back to 9,000 B.C., and so a lot of communicable - or town - diseases would have had a good start in this community.

By examining human and animal bones from this site, the researchers will be able to see how the first people living in a crowded situation developed the diseases of crowds and how this affected the disease through changes in DNA – of both the microbes and the people.

The most significant results of this research will come from a comparison between those data for humans and corresponding animal remains which may allow the identification of animal-human vectors and their interaction.

How can this research help us today?

Preliminary work suggests that there is sufficient DNA in the bone samples to make a contribution to our understanding of the origin and development of microbial disease which could provide crucial information in the evolution of tuberculosis.

Spigelman believes that knowing how a disease developed 6,000 years ago helps us understand what it will do as it continues to evolve, and will ultimately alter the practice of public health officials in combating it.

Where were the bones until now?

Spigelman came across the long-forgotten bones while examining mummies at Sydney University's Nicholson Museum.

"They told me they had lots of boxes of bones and didn't know what they were because they'd been deposited there fifty years earlier by an anthropologist who'd worked with Dr. Kathleen Kenyon who'd been excavating at Jericho. When I examined them, I recognized that these were the bones from Jericho, and I told them not throw them out!"

Some of the bones, which were then brought to Israel by Spigelman while on a Sir Zelman Cowan Fund fellowship, will be studied along with other bones from Jericho that have been contributed by the Duckworth Collection at Cambridge University who have agreed to participate in the project.

Israeli-Palestinian-German cooperation

The research, which is being sponsored by a grant from the German Science Foundation, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), will be conducted by the Hebrew University, Al Quds University and the Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich. In Israel, Ph.D. and master's students from both Al-Quds and the Hebrew Universities will devote their time exclusively to this project.

According to Spigelman, the project will also help the Palestinians develop the technology and set up their own ancient DNA lab at Al Quds University.

This is one of eleven trilateral research projects at the Hebrew University involving Palestinian, Israeli and German cooperation.

University of Rochester Medical Center : Positive thinking is prescription for the heart

Optimism is good for heart health, at least among men, a new study shows.

University of Rochester Medical Center researcher Robert Gramling, M.D., D.Sc., found that men who believed they were at lower-than-average risk for cardiovascular disease actually experienced a three times lower incidence of death from heart attacks and strokes.

The data did not support the same conclusion among women. One possible explanation for the gender difference, researchers said, is that the study began in 1990, a time when heart disease was believed to be primarily a threat to men. Therefore, women's judgments about how often heart attacks occur among average women might have been disproportionately low.

The study is published in the July-August issue of Annals of Family Medicine.

The 15-year surveillance study involved 2,816 adults in New England between the ages of 35 and 75 who had no history of heart disease. Researchers collected baseline data from 1990-1992; outcomes were obtained from the National Death Index records through December 2005.

Researchers were interested in measuring whether optimistic perceptions of risk might protect people from the fear-related coping behaviors (overeating comfort foods, too much alcohol, or avoiding the doctor) or the stress that can be associated with heart disease.

They asked people at the outset, "Compared with persons of your own age and sex, how would you rate your risk of having a heart attack or stroke in the next 5 years?"

Men's views were more discordant. Almost half of the men who self-rated their risk to be "low" would have been classified by objective medical tests as having "high" or "very high" risk. Most women who rated their risk to be "low" were far more accurate than the men.

"Clearly, holding optimistic perceptions of risk has its advantages for men," said Gramling, an assistant professor of Family Medicine and Community and Preventive Medicine.

If doctors are to accurately explain risks to patients, it's important for them to first understand how people perceive health risks. The study also pointed out that as genetic testing and advanced imaging continues to offer individuals more information about their future health, good communication is essential.

"It is not clear whether we should seek to disabuse people of optimistic 'misperceptions' in pursuit of changing behavior." Gramling said. "Perhaps we should work on changing behaviors by instilling more confidence in the capacity to prevent having a heart attack, rather than raising fears about having one."

###

The National Human Genome Research Institute (ELSI branch) of the National Institutes of Health funded the study, which was conducted when Gramling was a faculty member at Brown University's Center for Primary Care and Prevention, Memorial Hospital in Rhode Island. He recently joined the Rochester Center to Improve Communication in Health Care, at the University of Rochester Medical Center. He is working on similar research funded by the National Institute of Nursing Research of the NIH.

McMaster University : When it comes to putting, Tiger and Nicklaus might not have best advice

Golfers who heed the advice of instructors to keep their heads perfectly still while putting may be hampering their game, according to a study that examined coordination patterns.

The research appears in the July issue of the Journal of Motor Behavior.

Tim Lee, professor of kinesiology at McMaster University and a golfer himself—says the findings run contrary to conventional wisdom, or at least conventional golf wisdom.

"Jack Nicklaus says the premier technical cause of missed putts is head movement; Tiger Woods believes that even a fraction of head movement can throw a putting path off course," says Lee. "Therefore, it would seem that based on what the experts say good putters keep their heads absolutely still from start to finish."

The putting stroke is used more frequently than any other during a round of golf, regardless of skill. In 2007, putts represented 41.3 per cent of total strokes taken by members of the PGA tour, and 40 percent for members of the LPGA.

Lee and his team assembled two groups of golfers: one group comprised 11 volunteers, aged 21 to 56, and with a handicap range of 12 and 40; and another group of professional and low-handicap golfers, aged 24-52.

Using an infrared tracking system, researchers recorded the putter head and the golfer's head during sixty putts.

Surprisingly, both expert and less-skilled golfers moved their heads about the same amount during the execution of putts. The big difference was in the direction: less-skilled golfers moved in an allocentric direction – moving their head in the same direction and timing as the motion of the putter; the expert golfers moved in a tightly coupled but egocentric direction – moving their head in the opposite direction as the putter, but timed similarly to reverse when the putter reversed.

"The exact reasons for the opposite coordination patterns are not entirely clear," says Lee. "However, we suspect that the duffers tend to just sway their body with the motions of the putter. In contrast, the good golfers probably are trying to maintain a stable, central body position by counteracting the destabilization caused by the putter backswing with a forward motion of the head. The direction of head motion is then reversed when the putter moves forward to strike the ball."

"These coordination patterns are similar to the fundamental coordination patterns that we use to move our upper and lower limbs every day," Lee adds. "So, from one viewpoint, the findings are very consistent with other research. The findings are just not consistent with what most golf instructors believe to be true".

###

The study was funded by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council.

McMaster University, a world-renowned, research-intensive university, fosters a culture of innovation, and a commitment to discovery and learning in teaching, research and scholarship. Based in Hamilton, the University, one of only four Canadian universities to be listed on the Top 100 universities in the world, has a student population of more than 23,000, and an alumni population of more than 135,000 in 128 countries.

University of Washington : Asians who immigrated to US before age 25 have poorer mental health than older immigrants

Asian-American immigrants who came to the United States before they were 25 years old have poorer mental health than their compatriots who came to this country when they were 25 or older, according to data from the first national mental health survey of Asian-Americans.

The study is noteworthy because it shows that using traditional measures of socio-economic status – number of years of school and household income – to predict health outcomes is not accurate for individuals who immigrate when they are children or young adults, according to Janxin Leu, a University of Washington assistant professor of psychology and lead author of the study.

Immigrants who arrived in the U.S. before they were 25 attained higher levels of education and income than did older immigrants. However, 13 percent of the younger immigrants reported symptoms of an anxiety or depressive disorder in the previous 12 months compared to 9 percent of the over-25 group.

Leu and the other researchers found that what is called subjective social status was more accurate in predicting mental health outcomes than income or education. To calculate this, they told the people surveyed to imagine a ladder with 10 rungs containing individuals who had achieved the most on the top rung and those who were least successful on the bottom. Then they were asked to place themselves on the ladder in comparison with other people.

"The under-25 group experiences a lot of stress, the so called 'long-reach of childhood' that comes at a formative time of development," she said. "As adults, the under-25 group is doing better with English language skills and has higher levels of education and income, but it is experiencing more disease as adults. Early stressors are overcoming gains in income and education later in life.

"It is important to understand the early development of mental health. Children who are bullied because they are immigrants, for example, may suffer long-term mental health consequences."

The survey included data from more than 1,400 foreign-born Asian-Americans who were at least 25 years of age. Chinese (32 percent), Filipinos (20 percent) and Vietnamese (16 percent) were the three largest ethnic groups in the survey. Leu said the age of 25 was used as a marker to distinguish between immigrants who experienced disruption during their formative childhood, adolescent and early adult years and those who did not. Recent evidence has suggested that human social and cognitive development reaches maturation around the age of 25.

Age at immigration ranged from less than 1 year to 82 years. Forty-two percent of the participants immigrated before they were 25, and 58 percent arrived at age 25 or later.

Leu said studying Asian-American immigrants is important in understanding the development of American children because nearly one-quarter of U.S. children under the age of 6 are immigrants or have parents who were immigrants.

"The definition of who is an American is changing, and as this wave of people becomes part of the U.S. it will impact the country's health care system. We need to prevent disease and promote mental health. A little prevention goes a long way. Immigrants are one group where we can't ignore the developmental context of mental health problems."

###

The study was funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the National Institute of Mental Health and published in the journal Social Science & Medicine. Co-authors of the paper are David Takeuchi, a UW professor of social work; Emily Walton, a UW sociology doctoral student; and University of California, San Francisco, professors Irene Yen, Stuart Gansky and Nancy Adler.

For more information, contact Leu at (206) 616-1371 or janleu@u.washington.edu

University of Washington : Rx for time-crunched physicians

Communication skills increase efficiency of office visits without sacrificing patient satisfaction

With their waiting rooms crowded and exam rooms full, many physicians say they are too busy to be good communicators. Those who study physician time-management think otherwise. Certain communication skills can foster efficiency and effectiveness during an office visit without sacrificing rapport with patients, according to researchers at the University of Washington (UW) and the University of Rochester.

Their guide to a smoother flow of communication between doctors and patients appears in the July 14 issue of the Archives of Internal Medicine. Their model is based on the authors' observation: "Effective communication in primary care must include skills that enhance the quality of care while helping patients and physicians use time wisely… Making the best use of available time is important for visits of any duration."

The researchers are Larry Mauksch, a UW behavioral scientist in family medicine who studies and teaches doctor/patient communications; David C. Dugdale, an internal medicine physician and director of the UW Hall Health Primary Care Center; Sherry Dodson, UW clinical medical librarian; and Ronald Epstein, professor of family medicine, psychiatry, and oncology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry and its Center to Improve Communication and Health Care.

A few of the lessons the researchers presented in the resulting article, "Relationship, Communication, and Efficiency in the Medical Encounter: Creating a Clinical Model from a Literature Review" are:

First, focus the purpose of the visit with the patient: Instead of addressing each issue as it surfaces, creating a list at the start enables the doctor to confirm which problem is most medically urgent or most important to the patient. This approach also reduces the "Oh, by the way" issues brought up at the end of the visit.

Then, understand the patient's perspective: Exploring the patient's viewpoint is useful for promoting self-management, suggesting healthy changes, assessing motivation, learning the patient's family and cultural beliefs, understanding the social and psychological problems that are diminishing the patient's ability to function, or getting to the root of medically unexplained symptoms.

Near the end, reach a mutual agreement on a plan: The physician and patient decide on approaches the patient is willing to follow to manage or prevent the health concerns explored during the visit.

Throughout the office visit, it's helpful for physicians to:

• Establish rapport and maintain the relationship: Some ways doctors do this are by eye contact, recognizing others in the room, or a brief warm greeting, such as, "Nice to see you." On the other hand, too much small talk steals away time from considering the patient's problems.
• Practice mindfully: This occurs when physicians pay close attention to their own beliefs and reduce distractions in order to observe their patients' response to what is being said and done, and adjust accordingly. For example, a doctor lecturing on excess weight might notice the patient withdrawing. The doctor stops and asks about the patient's views. A physician who doesn't continuously monitor the interaction or doesn't check in with the patient may cover areas of little interest to the patient, and miss significant issues.
• Track topics: Sometimes an interview veers off course, particularly when there are multiple topics and no clear agenda. Unless the conversation is redirected, it's likely that no clear decisions will be made on some problems before the end of the visit. Sharing an impression of what has and hasn't been covered and realigning by agreeing on what to talk about next can keep the discussion organized.
• Acknowledge cues: When a physician responds with empathy to a patient's cues, a patient may reveal beliefs and preferences that can shape a successful treatment plan. Also, once their concerns are taken into account, most patients don't keep restating them. This saves time.

"Visits with the doctor that contain these fundamental elements," Mauksch said, "lead to greater patient satisfaction, better adherence to medical regimes, increased self-management, better health outcomes, lower costs, and fewer malpractice claims. These skills enable physicians to do it right the first time, so they don't have to do it over."

"We've tried to propose a model of doctor/patient communications," Dugdale added, "that is at the intersection between what patients need and the reality of a doctor's world. These are skills that make a difference and that doctors can use throughout their entire careers."

Some Facts on Doctors' Office Visits

• During their careers, physicians conduct upwards of 100,000 patient interviews, making it the most common "medical procedure" in an office setting.
• The mean length of time spent with a doctor during an office visit: 18 minutes.
• Primary-care patients bring up 3 to 6 concerns per visit.
• A physician's communication style tends to remain the same regardless of the length of the visit.

Teaching Doctors-in-Training How to Do Office Interviews

Patient communications are addressed in medical schools and residency training programs, but after starting practice, many new doctors abandon what they learned.

Larry Mauksch, who is on the faculty of the UW Department of Family Medicine, said it's difficult for medical students to learn doctor/patient communications only through classroom lectures or reading. Medical student training at the University of Washington (UW) includes observations of actual, enacted and Web-taped doctor visits.

Trainees use checklists to monitor specific parts of a medical encounter and they learn to put a name to specific skills. Students rate video demonstrations that are missing core communication elements and identify strategies for improvement. They also observe one another to help each other learn. Communication skill building is a key component of the UW medical school's introduction to clinical medicine course for second-year medical students and the family medicine clerkship for third-year medical students.

Some senior medical students take a clinical clerkship that concentrates on patient-centered communication. Mauksch likens the method he uses to the training of an athlete or a musician, where students have many opportunities to try out their skills, get comments, and try again, with refinements.

"Students experience for themselves how specific communications skills help them avoid pitfalls in patient interactions and make better use of time," Mauksch said. "They see themselves becoming more effective and enjoy their work more."

###

UW Medicine/UW Health Sciences News & Community Relations
University of Washington
Box 358046
South Lake Union UW Medicine Complex
815 Mercer St.
Seattle, WA 98109
206-543-3620

Wiley-Blackwell : 89 percent of children's food products provide poor nutritional quality

But 62 percent of them still make health claims on the packaging

Nine out of ten regular food items aimed specifically at children have a poor nutritional content – because of high levels of sugar, fat or sodium - according to a detailed study of 367 products published in the July issue of the UK-based journal Obesity Reviews.

Just under 70 per cent of the products studied - which specifically excluded confectionery, soft drinks and bakery items - derived a high proportion of calories from sugar. Approximately one in five (23 per cent) had high fat levels and 17 per cent had high sodium levels. Despite this, 62 per cent of the foods with poor nutritional quality (PNQ) made positive claims about their nutritional value on the front of the packet.

"Children's foods can now be found in virtually every section of the supermarket and are available for every eating experience" says Professor Charlene Elliott from the University of Calgary, Canada, and a Trustee of the Canadian Council of Food and Nutrition.

"Parents may have questions about which packaged foods are good for their children. Yet certain nutritional claims may add to the confusion, as they can mislead people into thinking the whole product is nutritious."

Only 11 per cent of the products Professor Elliott and her colleagues evaluated provided good nutritional value in line with the criteria laid down by the US-based Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), a non-profit agency that received the Food and Drug Administration's highest honour in 2007.

The CSPI nutritional standards state that healthy food should not derive more than 35 per cent of its calories from fat (excluding nuts and seed and nut butters) and should have no more than 35 per cent added sugar by weight. They also provide guidance on sodium levels, ranging from 230mg per portion for snacks through to 770mg per portion for pre-prepared meals.

CSPI's standards are adapted from those developed by the National Alliance for Nutrition and Activity, a coalition of some 300 health and nutrition organisations in the USA. The organisation states that its standards represent a compromise approach. They allow for the marketing of products that may not be nutritionally ideal, but that provide some positive nutritional benefits that could help children meet the US Government's Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

The 367 products included in the study were bought from a national supermarket chain stocking 50,000 food and non-food items in December 2005. Each had to meet very specific criteria.

"We included food products and packaging that were presented in such a way that children were the clear target audience" explains Professor Elliott, whose research was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. "They included products that promoted fun and play, had a cartoon image on the front of the box or were linked to children's films, TV programmes and merchandise."

Each product was subjected to a 36-point analysis that included the nutritional content and how the packaging was designed to appeal to children and their parents.

Key findings included:

• 63 per cent of all the products surveyed made some sort of nutritional claim, including 62 per of the products that could be classed as poorly nutritious, due to high levels of sugar or fat or sodium. A low percentage (eight per cent) carried some kind of nutrition mark or seal. Other claims included that products were low fat, a source of calcium, contained no artificial flavours or colours or provided a number of essential nutrients.

• Products with high sugar levels accounted for 70 per cent of the goods with PNQ. Despite this, 68 per cent included some sort of nutritional claim on the package, such as a source of whole grains, source of iron or low in fat. Cereals and fruit snacks were particularly likely to make nutritional claims and have high levels of sugar.

• Just under 23 per cent of the products had PNQ because of their high fat content. Yet 37 per cent had some sort of nutritional claim on the package. For example peanut butter mixed with chocolate claimed to be a "source of six essential nutrients" and a pizza product claimed to be a "source of calcium".

• High sodium levels meant that 17 per cent of the products analysed were classified as being of PNQ. Despite this, almost 34 per cent made some sort of nutritional claim on the package. Crackers and pizza products were among the worst offenders.

• A fifth of the products featured a cartoon image engaged in some sort of healthy physical activity on the front and a quarter showed these on the back or side of the box. Activities included skateboarding, basketball and biking.

"Assessing the levels of sugar in the selected food products was a methodological challenge, because milk sugars and fruit sugars occur naturally in foods" says Professor Elliott. "The Nutrition Facts label only displays total sugars and the quantity of added sugars is not always provided by the manufacturer.

"This means that the percentage of foods categorised as poorly nutritious due to high levels of sugar is higher than it would have been if information on naturally occurring sugars had been available."

The problem of accurately separating figures for quantities of natural and added sugars in manufactured products has also been encountered by other researchers and acknowledged as an issue by CSPI, so it is not unique to this study.

"Despite this, the findings still give us cause for concern" says Professor Elliott. "While caregivers are likely to purchase products that they hope their children will like, it clearly can result in a less nutritious diet than they may realise. Having a healthy diet is especially important given the current rates of childhood obesity."

Excess body weight affects up to 35 per cent of children across Canada, the United States and Europe and is linked to a range of health problems including type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease and some forms of cancer. Overweight children can also suffer from psychological and social consequences because of their weight.

Professor Elliott believes that policy attention needs to be directed towards the nutritional claims made by products aimed at children and the images they use to sell the products.

"If a parent sees a product that makes specific nutritional claims, they may assume that the whole product is nutritious and our study has shown that that is definitely not true in the vast majority of cases" concludes Professor Elliott. "Using cartoon characters engaged in sport can also create the illusion of a healthy product."

###

Notes to editors

• Assessing 'fun foods': nutritional content and analysis of supermarket foods targeted at children. Elliott C. Obesity Reviews. 9.43, pp 368-377 (July 2008).

• Obesity Reviews is a bi-monthly publication that includes papers from all disciplines related to obesity. The official review journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, it is published by Wiley-Blackwell and has a 2007 impact factor of 7.821. www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117981306/home

About Wiley-Blackwell. Wiley-Blackwell was formed in February 2007 as a result of the acquisition of Blackwell Publishing Ltd. by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., and its merger with Wiley's Scientific, Technical, and Medical business. Together, the companies have created a global publishing business with deep strength in every major academic and professional field. Wiley-Blackwell publishes approximately 1,400 scholarly peer-reviewed journals and an extensive collection of books with global appeal. For more information on Wiley-Blackwell, please visit www.interscience.wiley.com

American Sociological Association :Sociological research shows combined impact of genetics, social factors on delinquency

Study is among first to tie molecular genetic variants to male delinquency

CHAPEL HILL, NC — In one of the first studies to link molecular genetic variants to adolescent delinquency, sociological research published in the August issue of the American Sociological Review identifies three genetic predictors—of serious and violent delinquency—that gain predictive precision when considered together with social influences, such as family, friends and school processes.

Sociologists from the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill explored the interaction of genetics and social influences and identified three genetic polymorphisms that—when examined in the context of modulating social controls—are significant predictors of delinquency. These findings about gene–environment interactions suggest that certain genotypes and specific social control influences (e.g., family characteristics and processes; popularity and friendship characteristics; and school attendance factors) are mutually dependent on delinquency.

While many behavioral studies of gene–environment interactions typically examine the relationship of a single factor (e.g., child abuse, stress) to genes, the present research is unique in that it systematically examines layers of social context simultaneously (i.e., family dynamics, peer relations, and school-related variables). The study uses regression analysis to reveal non-intuitive and complex relations among the researched variables.

"While genetics appear to influence delinquency, social influences such as family, friends and school seem to impact the expression of certain genetic variants," said Guang Guo, the study's lead author and a professor of sociology and faculty fellow at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill's Carolina Population Center and Carolina Center for Genomic Sciences. "Positive social influences appear to reduce the delinquency-increasing effect of a genetic variant, whereas the effect of these genetic variants is amplified in the absence of social controls."

"Our research confirms that genetic effects are not deterministic," Guo said. "Gene expression may depend heavily on the environment."

The three genetic polymorphisms that predict delinquency include: (1) the 30-base pair (bp) promoter-region with a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, (2) the 40-bp VNTR in the dopamine transporter 1 (DAT1) gene and (3) the Taq1 polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene. MAOA regulates several brain neurotransmitters important in behavioral motivation, aggression, emotion and cognition (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine).

Among the findings, the research suggests a conditional interaction between repeating a school grade and the MAOA*2 repeat (2R) allele in adolescent boys. For those who did not have the 2R allele, repeating a grade was significantly correlated with serious delinquency, but for those who had this 2R allele and who repeated a grade, the propensity for serious delinquency increased dramatically.

The study also indicates a link between the DRD2 gene and having daily family meals. Daily meals with one or two parents are a powerful moderator for the effect of the DRD2 gene.

"Most delinquent and violent behaviors are considered complex," Guo said. "Understanding these behaviors requires understanding both their socioeconomic-cultural components and their genetic components."

The correlation of social and genetic effects on delinquency suggests the need for the social sciences to incorporate genetic evidence in this area of study, according to Guo. The implications of these findings also raise important questions for public policy.

###

For this study, the researchers examined a sample of approximately 1,100 males in grades 7 through 12 whose DNA and social-control measures were available through the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Guo co-authored the research with Michael E. Roettger and Tianji Cai, both doctoral candidates at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. The research was supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation.

Guo's work on genetics and delinquency has also been published in Human Genetics and has been accepted for publication in the European Journal of Human Genetics.

For a copy of the study, or to request an interview, contact Jackie Cooper at jcooper@asanet.org or (202) 247-9871.

About the American Sociological Association

The American Sociological Association (www.asanet.org), founded in 1905, is a non-profit membership association dedicated to serving sociologists in their work, advancing sociology as a science and profession, and promoting the contributions to and use of sociology by society.

JAMA and Archives Journals : Visual impairment may be associated with higher suicide risk

Visual impairment may be associated with an increased risk of suicide through its indirect negative effect on health, according to a report in the July issue of Archives of Ophthalmology, one of the JAMA/Archives journals.

Eye conditions that lead to visual impairment often have psychosocial and health consequences including impaired activities of daily living, social isolation, mental impairment, increased dependency on others, increased motor vehicle crashes, falls and fractures, depression and poor self-rated health, according to background information in the article. "Increased mortality risks also have been noted in adults with visual impairment and disabling eye disease."

Byron L. Lam, M.D., of Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, and colleagues reviewed data from national health surveys of 137,479 participants conducted between 1986 and 1996. Participants reported demographic information along with details about visual impairment and other health conditions. Researchers then verified deaths of participants up until 2002 through the National Death Index.

During an average 11 years of follow-up, 200 suicide deaths were identified. "After controlling for survey design, age, sex, race, marital status, number of non-ocular health conditions and self-rated health, the direct effect of visual impairment on death from suicide was elevated (increased by 50 percent) but not significant," the authors write. The indirect effect of visual impairment on suicide through poor self-rated health or number of non-ocular health conditions was considerable (5 percent and 12 percent, respectively). "The combined indirect effects of reported visual impairment operating jointly through poorer self-rated health and a higher number of reported non-ocular conditions increased the risk of suicide significantly by 18 percent."

"In summary, we observed that reported visual impairment increased suicide risk, particularly indirectly via reported health status and health conditions," the authors conclude. "Our results suggest improved treatments of visual impairment and factors causing poor health could potentially reduce suicide risk."

###

(Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126[7]:975-980. Available pre-embargo to the media at www.jamamedia.org.)

Editor's Note: This study was supported by a grant from the National Eye Institute and a grant from the National Institute on Occupational Safety and Health. Please see the article for additional information, including other authors, author contributions and affiliations, financial disclosures, funding and support, etc.

American Sociological Association : Sociological analysis shows emergence of 'rights revolution' in China

Growing rights activism of ordinary Chinese citizens driving change in contemporary China

While the 2008 summer Olympics in Beijing has elicited a rallying cry for human rights among high-profile activists and organizations outside China, ordinary Chinese citizens are mobilizing to fight for their rights inside the rapidly changing country, according to sociologist Ching Kwan Lee, writing in the summer issue of the American Sociological Association's Contexts magazine.
"Ordinary Chinese workers, homeowners and farmers have emerged as unlikely activists in a quiet revolution that is filling the gaps between central government law-making and the rights violations and corruption of local governments," said Lee, a sociologist at the University of California-Los Angeles who studies rights activism in China and Chinese investments in Africa. "This emerging rights mobilization has failed to attract the level of attention paid to other human rights activism directed at China, yet citizen activism inside the country is creating the potential for much broader social change."
In contrast to traditional activism appealing to universal notions of human rights, this grassroots movement among everyday people in China invokes "the protection of lawful rights," or weiquan. This activism focuses on specific rights prescribed by Chinese law, such as labor, property and rural land rights.
According to Lee, growing unrest over social injustice, as well as wealth and power gaps in Chinese society—due to the country's rapid economic development—has led to three decades of market reform and legal proliferation by the central government in Beijing.
However, in many local Chinese governments, the central government's legal reform suffers at the hand of economic and fiscal decentralization, as local governments pursue revenue and resources above all else. In this climate, Lee asserts, local governments are prone to violate citizens' rights through vested interests and the collusion of local officials with employers, investors and land developers.
In the case of labor rights, despite a series of labor laws passed since the 1990s, Lee asserts that labor standards in China have remained extremely bad since the country's economic reform began 30 years ago. As a result, non-governmental organizations have formed to provide legal and other services; the legal profession has ballooned; and workers are protesting through civil disobedience and other strategies.
Property ownership is another area in which local governments violate citizen rights in pursuit of financial gains from land lease sales and urban redevelopment. Homeowner activism has included petitions, mass occupations of property management company offices, development and use of neighborhood Web sites, hunger strikes and other strategies. In addition, homeowners' associations are increasingly being formed to advocate for rights and prevent power abuses by the local government.
In the area of land rights, thousands of conflicts, some violent, arise every year in China due to illegal land grabs by local officials, withholding of farmer compensation and lack of job replacement for those whose land has been taken. An estimated 34 million farmers have lost some or all of their land over the past two decades. Rural Chinese citizens are reacting to these rights violations by issuing public statements, filing lawsuits and organizing collective protests.
"Today's rights activism in China provides a look at the forces driving the near-total transformation of the most populace nation in the world," Lee said. "Attention may shift away from China after the 2008 Olympic Games conclude, yet the struggles between economic growth and social stability; between authoritarian rule and a more responsive state and involved citizenry; and between local and central governments will continue to shape and define China for the long-term future."
###
Lee's article is available online at www.contexts.org.
For more information or to request an interview with Ching Kwan Lee, contact Jackie Cooper (202-247-9871, jcooper@asanet.org).
About Contexts
Contexts (www.contexts.org), a magazine published by the American Sociological Association, provides the lay public with an accessible and thought-provoking look at modern life through the lens of the research and expertise of prominent U.S. sociologists. Edited by a team from the University of Minnesota's sociology department, the magazine offers provocative sociological ideas and research to examine everyday experiences through feature articles, book reviews, cultural analysis and engaging photography.
About the American Sociological Association
The American Sociological Association (www.asanet.org), founded in 1905, is a non-profit membership association dedicated to serving sociologists in their work, advancing sociology as a science and profession, and promoting the contributions to and use of sociology by society.

Washington University in St. Louis : Cost of raising a child with special needs: Where does your state rank?

New study finds a family's extra cost of caring for a child with special needs varies from state to state

Therapies, rehabilitation and specialty medical care are just a few of the extra costs that parents face when raising children with special needs. In a new study that will be published in current issue of Pediatrics, Paul T. Shattuck, Ph.D., professor of social work at Washington University in St. Louis, found that families with similar demographics and nature of their children's special needs have different out-of-pocket health expenditures depending on the state in which they live.

"This is one of the few studies that focuses on families' costs when caring for children with special needs, rather than the overall cost for society as a whole," he says.

The study's authors ranked all 50 states and the District of Columbia, using survey data from 2000 and 2001, in terms of the average percentage of special needs families that shoulder an additional financial burden, the yearly average extra costs of those families and the size of these costs relative to family income. (Click here to view the full rankings table).

"The overall percentage of U.S. families caring for children with special needs that experience an added financial burden was 91.2 percent," Shattuck says. "This group faced average extra out-of-pocket care costs of $774 per year for expenses related to their child's special needs."

Shattuck and his co-author, Susan L. Parish, Ph.D., assistant professor of social work at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, note that wealthier states tend to have a smaller proportion of families with any financial burden and a lower average extra cost for caring for a child with special needs.

"At the low end, families in Mass. paid an average of $560 for out-of-pocket medical expenses," Shattuck says. "At the high end, families in Georgia shouldered an average of $970 in additional care expenses.

"This study shows that programs like Medicaid and the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) may not be going far enough to help families with children with special needs. We need to revisit how to give appropriate support to poorer states where families, on average, have less income but are experiencing greater financial burden compared with families of similar means in wealthier states."

The researchers used data from a national telephone survey of households with children who have special health care needs, including a representative sample from each state and the District of Columbia. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development provided partial support for this study.

Shattuck's upcoming research includes studies on how raising special needs children impacts family asset building and how to determine what policy changes need to be made to help families pay for current care and save for future care.

Editor's note: Shattuck is available for phone, e-mail and broadcast interviews. Washington University has VYVX and ISDN lines available free for news interviews.